Notes

1. Harb, The Gulf War... pp. 162-3.[*]

2. Ibid. pp. 162-3.[*]

3. See Bauomi, Khaled, SDS 14 August 1990[*]

4. Ghalioun, `The Gulf War...' p. 17.[*]

5. Power structures and the balance of power will be discussed below.[*]

6. The state's nature and role in forming policy, and the territorial state as actor (as it has been in Europe since the middle of the seventeenth century) are issues that are discussed in more detail below.[*]

7. Al-Shref Ali was the son of the leader of the 1916 Arab Revolt, el-Hussein Ibn Ali. El-Hussein Ibn Ali was also the grandfather of the current King of Jordan, el-Hussein. Al-Shref Faisal I, King of Iraq from 1921 to 1933, was another of el-Hussein Ibn Ali's sons. The Hashemite title al-Shref marks the family's descent from the Prophet Muhammed.[*]

8. The northeastern area of what is now Saudi Arabia.[*]

9. The participating states were Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Trans-Jordan with symbolic forces from Saudi Arabia and Yemen. See Persson, Sune, Palestina-konflikten. Studentlitteratur, Lund 1984 pp. 48-50.[*]

10. See Ahmad, The inter-Arab conflict, pp. 144 ff.[*]

11. El-Harmassy, `State-building...' pp. 75-6.[*]

12. El-Harmassy, `State-building...', p. 75.[*]

13. For a discussion of concepts of the state in the Arab world see below p. [*]

14. El-Harmassy, `State-building...' pp. 76-80.[*]

15. Al-Naqeeb, Khaldoun, `The permanent structural elements...', pp. 43-5.[*]

16. Korany, Bahgat, `Alien and besieged', p. 48.[*]

17. Zeidler-Blomberg, Statens invandrarverk, p. 8.[*]

18. Hammond and Alexander, Political dynamics..., p. 2.[*]

19. Ramazani, Revolutionary Iran; Vatikiotis, Arab and regional politics..., p. 77.[*]

20. On one occasion I asked those present at a seminar to write down the states they thought constituted the Middle East. No two answers were the same![*]

21. Said, Orientalism... p. 4.[*]

22. Said, Orientalism..., p. 49.[*]

23. Said, Orientalism..., pp. 3-4.[*]

24. Ninety percent of the Arab East's population is Arab.[*]

25. Al-Naqeeb, Society and state pp. xiii-xiv; see also Amin, The Arab nation, pp. 12-20.[*]

26. Eduards, `Samarbete i Maghreb' p. 14; see also Abd al-Hamid, Tarikh..., pp. 64 ff.[*]

27. During the Islamic Golden Age of the ninth century, Baghdad was made the centre from which provinces were reckoned either east or west. See Abd al-Hamid, Tarikh... pp. 61-3.[*]

28. For the term `Arab East' including Eygpt, the Arab states in the Fertile Crescent, and the Arab Peninsula, see `A survey of the Arab East' in The Economist 6-12 February 1988 pp. 57 ff; see also Azmie, `el-sbuieah...'; The tradition of the revolutionary idea in Egypt before the July Revolt 1952. Cairo 1981 pp. 45 ff; Ghassan, The foundations of the Arab state, p. 11.[*]

29. al-Naqeeb, `Society and state...' pp. xv-xvi.[*]

30. Iraqi nationalism/Iraqism, Kuwaiti nationalism/Kuwaitism and Egyptian natinonalism/Egyptism.[*]

31. See al-Harmassi, Abdel-baki, pp. 78-9.[*]

32. See al-Harmassi, Abdel-baki, pp. 78-9; how the reinforcement of a power centre in the Arab world can forward state nationalism and/or Arab nationalism, when a state proposes itself as the most valid basis of of unification of states, whether Islamic or Arab, will be discussed at a later date.[*]

33. Ghassan, `Society and State...', p. 13.[*]

34. Ibid., p. 34.[*]

35. Amin, The Arab nation, p. 12.[*]

36. Amin, `Unequal development...'.[*]

37. Amin, `Unequal development...', p. 81.[*]

38. Rönnquist, Historia..., p. 20[*]

39. See Khalf Allah, Arab nationalism..., p. 21[*]

40. Rönnquist, Historia..., p. 25.[*]

41. See al-Alawi, The Turkish impacts...[*]

42. See Khalf Allah, Arab nationalism, p. 21[*]

43. Ibid. p. 20; see also Qasim, al-Baath and the Arab world, pp. 281 ff.[*]

44. Amin, The Arab nation, p. 81.[*]

45. Amin, The Arab nation, p. 81.[*]

46. Ghalioun, Ightial Elaakel, p. 32.[*]

47. See al-Jabiri, Contemporary Arab thought, pp. 113-23.[*]

48. Muhafza, The history of the Idea movement..., pp. 13-33.[*]

49. Ibrahim Basha was Muhammed Ali's son.[*]

50. Muhafza, The history of the Idea movement..., p. 43.[*]

51. Omliel, Arab reform and the nation state, p. 24.[*]

52. Ibid. pp. 21-2.[*]

53. Muhammed first learnt to read and write in his forties.[*]

54. For an opposing view see Taylor, The Arab balance of power.[*]

55. Riyad is given here as a historic capital city because of its control over the cities of Mecca and Medina.[*]

56. Compare Heyd, Studies in Islamic history, pp. 63 ff; see also Amin, The Arab Nation, pp. 41 ff.[*]

57. It can also be translated as `believers in the one true God'.[*]

58. Compare Marso, Egypt..., pp. 196-232; see also Duri, The historical formation..., pp. 141-6[*]

59. For the Arab-Islamic state see Lapidus, The history of Islamic societies, pp. 37-126.[*]

60. Hanableism, along with Shafieism, Hanafieism and Malikism, make up the four great Sunni Muslim teachings. It is often described as the most rigourous of the four because of its strict interpretation of the Kuran.[*]

61. See Mousa, The Arab movement, pp. 15-16.[*]

62. The first time was during the Fatimid period, when Cairo was founded under a name that meant `victorious empire', el-Kaherah.[*]

63. Mousa, The Arab movement, p. 17.[*]

64. For Ali's plans and dealings with the Wahabbis see Mousa, The Arab movement, pp. 21-34; see also Fisher, The Middle East..., pp. 281-96.[*]

65. Compare Antonius, The Arab awakening..., p. 21; see also Marsot, Egypt..., pp. 196-232; see also Awad, Wa-Alikuom el-Salam, pp. 35 ff.[*]

66. For the 1840 Treaty compare Fisher, The Middle East..., p. 285.[*]

67. Amin, The Arab nation, p. 133.[*]

68. Great-grandfather of the King Hussein who rules Jordan today.[*]

69. See Persson, Palestina konflikten, pp. 18-19; see also Kasmeih, The Arab Government..., pp. 24-8.[*]

70. Persson, Palestina konflikten, p. 19.[*]

71. Persson, Palestina konflikten, pp. 20-1.[*]

72. Persson, Palestina konflikten, p. 20.[*]

73. For the Arab Government see Kasmeih, The Arab Government..., pp. 46-73.[*]

74. For the Ottoman Empire's collapse and its consquences see Fisher, The Middle East..., pp. 397-410.[*]

75. For the rise of the kingdon of Saudi Arabia see Yale, The Near East, pp. 357-64.[*]

76. For the background to the formation of the Arab League compare: Gumma, The foundation of the League..., pp. 115 ff; Hassouna, The League of Arab States..., pp. 3-8; and in Arabic Ismail, Egypt's national security, p. 27[*]

77. See al-Jabiri, Contemporary Arab thought, pp. 157-95.[*]

78. Ibrahim, Egypt questioning its identity, pp. 234-9 (in Arabic).[*]

79. For the Union with Syria see Ibrahim, Egypt questioning its identity, pp. 14-20.[*]

80. For the geo-political context of Arab relations at this time see Kerr, The Arab Cold War..., pp. 2 ff.[*]

81. For Iraq under General Kassem see Taylor, The Arab balance of power, p. 38.[*]

82. Tompuri, Fredsfördraget med Israel..., p. 30.[*]

83. Ahmad, The oil kingdoms..., pp. 28-30 (in Arabic).[*]

84. For Iranian hegemony and the Gulf compare Ramazani, The Persian Gulf..., pp. 102-11.[*]

85. Rabie, pp. 246-254; see also Ahmad, The oil kingdoms..., p. 41.[*]

86. For the creation of this party see Qasim, al-Ba'ath and the Arab world (in Arabic); compare Taylor, The Arab balance of power, pp. 18-19.[*]

87. See Qasim, al-Ba'ath and the Arab world, pp. 183-94.[*]

88. For the Ba'ath view of Arab union see Aflaq, Ba'ath and union (in Arabic).[*]

89. Aflaq, Ba'ath and union, pp. 42-3.[*]

90. Aflaq, Ba'ath and union, p. 29.[*]

91. On Nasserism, see Seif el-Dualah, The Arab revolution's theoretical path to union...[*]

92. See al-Ahram 1991-02-15; see also al-Jabiria, Contemporary Arab thought, pp. 113-23.[*]

93. For the ecomonic imbalance between the oil states and their neighbours see Hikel, The Gulf War, pp. 102-110 (in Arabic); see also al-Jabiria, Contemporary Arab thought, pp. 7 ff. [*]

94. In March 1975 the Shah of Iran permitted the establishment of a single political party to be called Rastakhiz, or renaissance.[*]

95. Compare Taylor, The Arab balance of power, p. 81.[*]

96. Tompuri, Irakiska optioner efter kriget med Iran, pp. 74-5.[*]

97. Compare Ramazani, Revolutionary Iran, pp. 19-27.[*]

98. Ramazani, Revolutionary Iran, pp. 24-7.[*]

99. Compare Ramazani, Revolutionary Iran, pp. 65-9.[*]

100. For Iraq's decision to go to war with Iran see Hikel, The Gulf War, p. 130.[*]

101. For Arab support of Iraq see Ramazani, Revolutionary Iran, pp. 76-80.[*]

102. For military co-operation between Egypt and Iraq, and Egyptian arms' sales to Iraq through Oman as early as 1981 see Hikel, The Gulf War, p. 136.[*]

103. For the rivalry of Saudi Arabia and Iraq to take Egypt's role see Ahmad, The oil kingdoms..., p. 47.[*]

104. Lieutenant General Mohamed Ail Hilal, commander of the Egyptian forces that fought in the Kuwait War, had six months earlier been advisor to the Iraqi army and instrumental in the planning of Iraq's seizure of the Fao Peninsual, see Hikal, al-Ahram, 25 March 1992 p. 4.[*]

105. For political developments and the need for a change in Arab relations in 1988, together with the AGS's foundation, see Hikel, The Gulf War, pp. 164-5.[*]

106. The al-Taif Treaty was concluded by the Arab League's governing body amongst nearly all the parties to the war in Lebanon. The Treaty was signed in al-Taif in Saudi Arabia in 1989.[*]

107. Egypt and Saudi Arabia refused to fight within Iraq's borders; see al-Ahram 28 February 1991[*]

108. Transcribed from a video tape distributed by the Iraqi embassy in Sweden May 1990.[*]

109. King Fahad's declaration, al-Ahram, 1 March 1991.[*]