1, This paper was presented at the third conference of the Nordic Society for Middle Eastern Studies at Joensuu, Finland, June 1995.[*]
2. Second language acquisition is used here to mean second as well as foreign language learning. [*]
3. For a general overview of the field, see e.g. Burt, Marina K. and Heidi Dulay. "On Acquisition Orders", in: Felix, Sacha, W. (ed) Second Language Development, Trends and Issues, Tübingen, Günter Narr,1980. Pp. 265 - 355; Rutherford, William E., "Markedness in Second Language Acquisition", in: Language Learning, vol. 32, no. 1, 1982. Pp. 85 - 108. Ellis, Rod. Understanding Second Language Acquisition, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1987. Pp. 42 - 73. [*]
4. Anderson, R, "The Impoverished State of Cross-Sectional Morpheme Acquisition / Accuracy Methodology, or, the Leftovers are More Nourishing than the Main Course", in: Working Papers in Bilingualism, vol. 14, 1977. Pp. 47 - 82; Ellis, Op. cit., p. 54-63, 72. Ellis, Rod. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994. Pp. 90-99 and110-115. Rosansky, E.J., "Methods and Morphemes in Second Language Acquisition Research", in: Language Learning, vol. 26, 1976. Pp. 409-425; Wode, H., J. Bahns, H. Bedey and W. Frank, "Developmental Sequence: An AlternativeApproach to Morpheme Order", in: Language Learning, vol. 28, no. 1, 1978. Pp.175 - 185. [*]
5. Pienemann, Manfred, "Determining the Influence of Instruction on L2 Speech Processing", in: Australian Review of Applied Linguistics,vol. 10, no.2. 1987 a. Pp. 83-113.[*]
6. Ibid. pp. 83-113; Pienemann, Manfred. "Psychological Constraints on the Teachability of Languages", in: Pfaff, Carol (ed) First and Second Language Acquisition Processes, Rowley, Mass., Newbury House, 1987 (b). Pp.143-167. Pienemann, Manfred, "Is Language Teachable? Psycholinguistic Experiments and Hypotheses", in: Applied Linguistics, vol 10, no. 1,1989. Pp. 52-79.[*]
7. Meisel, J., H. Clahsen and M. Pienemann, "On Determining Developmental Stages in Second Language Acquisition", in: Studies in Second Language Acquisition, vol. 3, no. 2, 1981. Pp. 109-135; Clahsen, H., J. Meisel and M. Pienemann Deutsch als Zweitsprache. Der Spracherwerbausländischer Arbeiter. Tübingen, Günter Narr, 1983.[*]
8. Pienemann, Manfred and Malcolm Johnston, "An Acquisition Based Procedure for Second Language Assessment (ESL)", in Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, vol. 9, no. 1, 1986. Pp. 92-122.[*]
9. Pienemann, Op. cit., 1989, p. 55.[*]
10. For a discussion of these two aspects, see Pienemann, op. cit.,1987a, p. 109-111.[*]
11. Ibid., p. 89.[*]
12. Ibid., p. 91.[*]
13. Ibid., p. 91, 99.[*]
14. Ibid., p.91.[*]
15. Ibid., p. 90.[*]
16. Ibid., p. 90.[*]
17. Ibid., p. 90.[*]
18. Ibid., p. 91.[*]
19. Ibid., p. 91.[*]
20. Ibid., p. 91.[*]
21. Ibid., p. 99.[*]
22. Ibid., p. 99.[*]
23. Ibid., p. 99.[*]
24. At a first glance, Pienemann's own data seem to contradict thefact that subject-verb agreement can only be acquired at the fourth level. For a clairifying discussion, see Pienemann 1987a, p. 103-107.[*]
25. Ibid., p. 91. [*]
26. Ibid., p. 90-91.[*]
27. Ibid., p. 90.[*]
28. A combined 6-year programme of Arabic and business administration. Cand. negot. is an abbreviation for candidatus negotiandi. [*]
29. Badawi, El-Said et al. al-kitab al-asasi, vol. 1 & 2.Tunis, 1987.[*]
30. Unit 1-11 focus mainly on the teaching of sounds and letters ofthe Arabic alphabet, lesson 1-6 focus on the conjugation of nouns and pronouns,whereas lesson 7-11 focus on verb conjugation. Lesson 11 and 22 are revising chapters, reason for which the lessons in between are grouped together. [*]
31. Pienemann, 1987a, op.cit., p. 94.[*]
32. There are many indications that the learner who was recorded for this study knows how the rule system of the given noun phrase structures work when asked to formulate them. This can be seen, for example, in her written homework and in her classroom performance. [*]
33. For a discussion of these terms, see Nielsen, Helle Lykke. "How to teach Arabic communicatively- an attempt to establish a theoretical framework in TAFL", in El-Gibali, Alaa (ed) Essays in honor of el-Said Badawi. Cairo, The American University in Cairo. In press.[*]
34. See, for example Dulay, Heidi C. and Marina K. Burt, "Natural Sequences in Child Second Language Acquisition", in: Language Learning vol. 24, 1974. Pp. 37 - 54, and Larsen Freeman, Diane E. "The Acquisition of Grammatical Morphemes by Adult ESL Students", in: Tesol Quarterly, vol. 9, no. 4, 1975. Pp. 409 - 419.[*]
35. This level is often defined as being 80 or 90% of the accuracy rate, cf. Brown, Roger, A First language, Cambridge, Mass, Harvard University Press, 1973; Thompson, Irene, "Acquisition of Cases by Students of Russian: a Preliminary Investigation", in: Russian Language Journal,vol. 34, no. 117, 1980. Pp. 43 - 52.[*]
36. Pienemann, 1987(b), p. 147[*]
37. There are many indications in the data that the language learner uses the ta marbuta as a marked feature. This is a field for further research.[*]
38. Pienemann, 1989, Op. cit. p 73. [*]
39. Op.cit., p. 73.[*]
40. Op.cit. p. 76.[*]
41. If the first noun of an idafa ends with a ta' marbuTa, graphically manifested* in our context as an "-a", it has to be pronounced <t>, reason for which a "-t" is normally added in the transliteration. However, in order to show when the language learner performs this operation correctly, the "-t" will only be added in case the language learner actually pronounces it. [*]
42. In this context, I shall disregard the al- prefix of bint, since the structure is acquired at an earlier point. [*]
43. The al-prefix of bint does not concern us here, since it has been acquired at an earlier stage.[*]